THE OLD TESTAMENT TEXTS
The Old Testament in Protestant Christian Scriptures does not follow the original order encountered by ancient Jews, including Jesus. Instead, Jesus encountered the ancient Hebrew Scriptures as the traditional three-part collection of scrolls known as the TaNaK. The TaNaK follows the Masoretic text (a Hebrew word meaning "traditional"). However, to further complicate the issue, Jesus, the New Testament authors, and the first several centuries of the Church encountered the Hebrew Scriptures through the Septuagint — the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures compiled and developed roughly two centuries before Jesus. These Greek translations had several more writings in them than did the Hebrew Scriptures. Depending on the Greek/Jewish community, these additional texts varied. You can learn more about the Masoretic text, Greek text, the Septuagint, and more by clicking the dropdown link below.| CLARIFYING THE OLD TESTAMENT DEFINING TERMS |
Various terms related to the Hebrew Scriptures (the Old Testament) require clear definition and clarification. Depending on one's Christian tradition, background, or education, these terms may be unfamiliar.
Lists of Books
TaNaK
TaNaK is an acronym representing the three parts that compiled to make the original structure of the original Hebrew Scriptures: Torah (Law), Nevi’im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). Jesus acknowledged this distinction when referring to the Hebrew Scriptures as "the Law, Prophets, and Psalms" (Luke 24:44), "the Law and the Prophets" (Matthew 22:40), or simply as "the Law" (Matthew 5:18). The Hebrew canon contains 24 books, one for each of the scrolls on which these works were written in ancient times. This is due to the fact that several writings are combined in the Hebrew Scriptures (e.g., Kings, Samuel, Chronicles, etc.).Masoretic Text
The Masoretic Text is the authoritative Hebrew form of the Hebrew Scriptures preserved and standardized by Jewish scribes known as the Masoretes between the 6th and 10th centuries AD. They carefully transmitted the ancient consonantal text while adding vowel points, accents, and notes that reflect rabbinic (and often anti-Christian) Jewish interpretive traditions. By this time, Judaism had firmly moved away from earlier Second Temple concepts of divine plurality, shaping how certain passages were vocalized and understood. When read alongside the earlier Septuagint and the Dead Sea Scrolls — which preserve older interpretive streams — the Masoretic Text is best understood as a faithful yet theologically biased (toward rabbinic Judiasm) witness within the broader history of the biblical text.Septuagint
The Septuagint (abbreviated as LXX) is a generic term used for the earliest Greek translations of the Hebrew Scriptures. These translations are believed to have been created for the Jewish communities during a time when Greek was the common language (4th to 2nd century BC). The name "Septuagint" (derived from the Latin "septuaginta" meaning "70") comes from a legend that suggests 72 translators (6 from each of the 12 tribes of Israel) independently worked on the translation, each producing an identical version. These Septuagint versions included additional books collectively referred to as the Apocrypha. It is important to note that Jesus and the early church communities primarily used these various Septuagint versions in their quoting of Scripture. This means that the additional Apocryphal books, while not necessarily considered "Scripture", heavily influenced these first-century mindsets and traditions. A few examples of Apocryphal texts being referred to in the New Testament include: Jude 14-15, Matthew 27.43 (cf. Psalm 22.8); Hebrews 11.37; and Revelation 8.2.Pentateuch
The Pentateuch comes from a combination of Greek words: "penta", meaning "five," and "teuchos", which can be translated as "scroll." It refers to the first five scrolls of the Septuagint: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The name Pentateuch can be traced back to AD 200, when Tertullian referred to the first five books of the Bible by that name.Apocrypha
The Apocrypha (also refered to as "Deuterocanonical" or "Second-Temple" writings) is a collection of pre-New Testament works by Jewish writers, many collected in the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew texts. These books are considered canonical Scripture by the Roman Catholic Church (the Western Church) and the Orthodox Church (the Eastern Church) but only recently rejected by Protestant denominations in the early 19th century. The term "Apocrypha" simply means "hidden" or "secret" and is now used in a disparaging sense by the Protestant Church. However, these writings were originally called "hidden" or "secret" because they were to be kept from new converts due to ther complex origins, nature, and content. For example, if the Hebrew Scriptures were used as level one discipleship and the New Testament considered level two discipleship, then the Apocryphal books would be considered level three discipleship. While these writings were written by the Jewish community prior to the first century AD, they were rejected by the Jewish community by the second century AD and only preserved due to the importance the Christian communities placed on them. Early church communities included different apocryphal books in their Septuagint collections based on how significant each writing was to their community. The Apocrypha was gradually removed from Protestant Bibles over time, with key milestones marking its decline: 1534: Martin Luther’s German Bible was the first to separate the Apocrypha into a distinct section, labeling them as non-canonical but useful for reading; 1599: The Geneva Bible followed suit, placing the Apocrypha between the Old and New Testaments with a note on their non-inspired status; 1611: The King James Version (KJV) included the Apocrypha in a separate section, acknowledging its value but not divine inspiration; 1804: The British and Foreign Bible Society stopped printing the Apocrypha in English Bibles, citing cost-saving reasons; 1826: The Society officially decided not to include the Apocrypha in English Bibles, ending its inclusion in most Protestant editions; and 1885: The KJV was officially revised without the Apocrypha, marking the final widespread removal from standard Protestant Bibles. While the Apocrypha was part of nearly every English Bible from the 16th to the 19th century, it was effectively removed from mainstream Evangelical Protestant Bibles by the late 19th century, though modern editions, like the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV), are seeing it put back in to align with and reflect the majority of Christianity and Christian history.Deuterocanonical
Deuterocanonical, meaning, "second canon", is another word that refers to apocryphal or second temple texts that were written between the Old and New Testament periods (c.400 BC - 100 BC). They were accepted by the Jews of that period, particularly the Pharisees, but not necessarily considered divinely inspired. The term was coined in 1566 by Sixtus of Siena, a converted Jew and Catholic theologian, to describe scriptural texts considered canonical, yet "secondary", by the Catholic Church. Sixtus considered the final chapter of the Gospel of Mark to be deuterocanonical.Lists of Books
Protestant The books are the same as the TaNaK (Masoretic Text) with only slight variations in numbering due to some books being devided (for example: The Book of Kings is divided into 1 Kings and 2 Kings).
Western (Catholic) Churches All the Books of the Protestant Bible + 2 Esdras (3 Esdras in Slavonic, 4 Esdras in Vulgate), Tobit, Judith, 1 & 2 Maccabees, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus (Sirach), Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah.
Eastern (Orthodox) Churches All the Books of the Catholic Bible + The Prayer of Manasseh, 3 Maccabees, Susanna along with the Hymn of the Three Young Men (beginning of Daniel), and Bel and the Serpent (end of Daniel).
The value and canonical status of the deuterocanonical books (The Apocrypha) have been an ongoing discussion between Protestants, Catholics, and Orthodox Churches since the times of the East and West Schism (c.1054 AD) and the Protestant Reformation (c.1521 AD).
HEBREW SCRIPTURE ORDER
The early church had more books in their Scriptures than did the Hebrew text as a result of the wide use of the Septuagint. However, to reconnect with the Hebrew tradition and understand the Hebrew Scriptures canonically as Jesus and his Hebrew followers did, our resource is presented in their original order as found in the TaNaK.Each Hebrew Scripture writing is accompanied by a brief explanation of the author's/compiler's motivations and the circumstances that led to the writing. Additionally, estimated timelines for when the described events likely occurred are provided. It's important to note that due to historical uncertainties and the potential unreliability of details, the dates in this list are approximations.*
Books with the abbreviation *CRBV* next to them indicates a Cultivate Relationships Bible Version is available to read.
| THE SCROLLS OF MOSES TORAH |
The term "Torah," which translates to "instruction, teaching, or law" in Hebrew (see also Pentateuch in the Septuagint), encompasses the initial five books of the Hebrew Scriptures. These books form a unified narrative, beginning with a creation narrative and concluding with God's covenant with Israel. The term Torah is also used generically to refer to the entirety of the Hebrew Scriptures.
GENESIS *CRBV*
Genesis, compiled by Moses during the 40 years of wondering in the wilderness, serves as the foundational text of the Hebrew Scriptures. In its final composition, around the 15th-5th centuries BC, it intertwines historical events, myths, and genealogies. Against the backdrop of Ancient Near Eastern cultures, Genesis diverges from Babylonian and Canaanite creation myths by emphasizing a single Creator and underscores God's intentional design of creating humans in His image and likeness. Genesis reveals God's sovereignty over creation and human history. It lays the foundation for God's divine prophetic plan for redemption, laying the theological groundwork for the Scriptures' narrative arc.
Read our version of Genesis 1-6: CLICK HERE↗︎
Chapter 1-11
Chapter 12-50
General Setting of Genesis
The book of Genesis describes events in the ancient Near East from the beginnings of civilization to the relocation of Jacob’s (Israel’s) family in Egypt. The stories of Genesis are set among some of the oldest nations in the world, including Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, and Elam.
Garden of Eden (Genesis 1-4)
Genesis describes the location of Eden in relation to the convergence of four rivers. While two of the rivers are unknown (the Pishon and the Gihon), the nearly universal identification of the other two rivers as the Tigris and the Euphrates suggests a possible location for Eden at either their northern or southern extremes. However, any identification of a possible location of the Garden of Eden is inconsequential as most geographical markers would have been catastrophically destroyed in the global flood of Genesis 7-8.
Table of Nations (Genesis 10)
Many of the people groups mentioned in Genesis 10 can be identified with relative certainty. In general, the descendants of Ham settled in North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean coast, the descendants of Shem in Mesopotamia and Arabia, and the descendants of Japheth in Europe and the greater area of Asia Minor.
Ziggurat (Tower of Babel [Babylon]) (Genesis 11)
Ziggurats are monumental temple-towers found throughout the area of ancient Mesopotamia. They were commonly built of sun-dried mud and straw bricks held in position with bitumen as mortar. Stairways ascended to the top of these structures, where a small temple/shrine sat on the summit. The illustration depicts the Ziggurat of Nanna at Ur, which was constructed during the reign of Ur-Nammu (c. 2113–2095 B.C.). Its area covered 150 x 200 feet (46 x 61 m), and its height was 80 feet (24 m). It is commonly believed that this type of structure was being built in the Tower of Babel [Babylon] episode (Gen. 11:1–9). The text indicates that the builders of Babel [Babylon] had discovered the process of making mud bricks and that they employed “bitumen for mortar” (v. 3). Based on that invention, the builders decided “to build … a tower with its top in the heavens” (v. 4).
The City of Ur (Genesis 11)
The ancient city of Ur lies 186 miles (300 km) southeast of modern Baghdad on a bend of the original course of the Euphrates River. Major excavations took place at the site in 1922–1934 under the direction of Sir Leonard Woolley. Ur became an important city in Mesopotamia near the end of the third millennium B.C. The governor of Ur, a man named Ur-Nammu (c. 2113–2095 B.C.), brought the city to great prominence. He took the titles “King of Ur, King of Sumer and Akkad.” Thus was founded the Third Dynasty of Ur (2113–2006 B.C.). This period was one of great peace and prosperity, the high point of the city’s existence. This diagram of the city represents the Third Dynasty of Ur, and it includes a central palace and a temple complex. The latter has as its center the Ziggurat of Ur-Nammu that is dedicated to the moon god Nanna. Ur was the birthplace of the Hebrew patriarch Abraham (Gen. 11:27–32), and the plan represents the city that he would have been familiar with.
Abraham - Ur to Canaan (Genesis 11)
Abram was born in Ur, a powerful city in southern Babylonia. Abram’s father, Terah, eventually led the family toward the land of Canaan but decided to settle in Haran. After Terah’s death, the Lord called Abram to go “to the land that I will show you” (Canaan), which he promises to give to Abram’s descendants.
Abraham - Battle of Siddim (Genesis 14)
When five Canaanite cities rebelled against their four Mesopotamian overlords, the four kings led a campaign to reassert their control over the region. The campaign culminated in a battle in the Siddim Valley, and Abram’s nephew Lot, who was living in Sodom, was captured and carried off. When Abram was informed of Lot’s capture, he and his men pursued the four kings to Dan, where they recaptured Lot and chased the fleeing forces as far as Hobah, north of Damascus.
Abraham - Sodom & Gomorrah (Genesis 19)
At Abraham’s request, the Lord spared Lot and his family from the destruction that came upon Sodom and Gomorrah. Afterwards, Lot’s two daughters feared that their isolation would result in the end of their family line and they plotted to get their father drunk in order that they might conceive children by him. Each daughter bore a son, from whom the Moabites and the Ammonites were descendants.
Abraham - Journey to Paddan-Aram (Genesis 24)
When Isaac was 40 years old, Abraham sent his eldest servant back to Paddan-aram, the land of his relatives, to obtain a wife for Isaac. The servant found Rebekah, the granddaughter of Abraham’s brother Nahor, and brought her back to Isaac, who was living in the Negeb. Later, Jacob would make this same journey as he fled from his brother Esau.
Jacob - Journey to Canaan (Genesis 32)
After acquiring wealth in Paddan-aram, Jacob returned to Canaan. He came to Mahanaim, where he sent his household ahead of him and crossed the Jabbok alone. There he wrestled with a mysterious man until morning and named the place Peniel (also called Penuel). Jacob then encountered his brother Esau, who had come from Edom to meet him. After the two were reconciled, Esau returned to Edom, while Jacob journeyed to Canaan.
Joseph - Journey to Egypt (Genesis 45)
Jacob sent Joseph from Hebron to Shechem to find his brothers, who had been pasturing their father’s flock. When Joseph arrived, he learned that his brothers had gone on to Dothan, so he went there and found them. His brothers threw him into a pit and later sold him to some Ishmaelite spice traders on their way from Gilead to Egypt. The traders took Joseph to Egypt and sold him to Potiphar, the captain of Pharaoh’s guard.
Joseph - Egypt in the Times of Jospeh (Edited ESV map)* (Genesis 46-47)
Joseph arrived in Egypt during the reign of the Twelfth Dynasty, arguably the zenith of Egypt’s power. Shortly before this era, Upper and Lower Egypt had been unified under one ruler, and now Egyptian influence expanded south and east. The regular flooding of the Nile River provided a relatively stable supply of food and offered some degree of protection from the famines suffered by other lands of the ancient Near East.
Read our version of Genesis 1-6: CLICK HERE↗︎
Chapter 1-11
Chapter 12-50
General Setting of Genesis
The book of Genesis describes events in the ancient Near East from the beginnings of civilization to the relocation of Jacob’s (Israel’s) family in Egypt. The stories of Genesis are set among some of the oldest nations in the world, including Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, and Elam.
Garden of Eden (Genesis 1-4)
Genesis describes the location of Eden in relation to the convergence of four rivers. While two of the rivers are unknown (the Pishon and the Gihon), the nearly universal identification of the other two rivers as the Tigris and the Euphrates suggests a possible location for Eden at either their northern or southern extremes. However, any identification of a possible location of the Garden of Eden is inconsequential as most geographical markers would have been catastrophically destroyed in the global flood of Genesis 7-8.
Table of Nations (Genesis 10)
Many of the people groups mentioned in Genesis 10 can be identified with relative certainty. In general, the descendants of Ham settled in North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean coast, the descendants of Shem in Mesopotamia and Arabia, and the descendants of Japheth in Europe and the greater area of Asia Minor.
Ziggurat (Tower of Babel [Babylon]) (Genesis 11)
Ziggurats are monumental temple-towers found throughout the area of ancient Mesopotamia. They were commonly built of sun-dried mud and straw bricks held in position with bitumen as mortar. Stairways ascended to the top of these structures, where a small temple/shrine sat on the summit. The illustration depicts the Ziggurat of Nanna at Ur, which was constructed during the reign of Ur-Nammu (c. 2113–2095 B.C.). Its area covered 150 x 200 feet (46 x 61 m), and its height was 80 feet (24 m). It is commonly believed that this type of structure was being built in the Tower of Babel [Babylon] episode (Gen. 11:1–9). The text indicates that the builders of Babel [Babylon] had discovered the process of making mud bricks and that they employed “bitumen for mortar” (v. 3). Based on that invention, the builders decided “to build … a tower with its top in the heavens” (v. 4).
The City of Ur (Genesis 11)
The ancient city of Ur lies 186 miles (300 km) southeast of modern Baghdad on a bend of the original course of the Euphrates River. Major excavations took place at the site in 1922–1934 under the direction of Sir Leonard Woolley. Ur became an important city in Mesopotamia near the end of the third millennium B.C. The governor of Ur, a man named Ur-Nammu (c. 2113–2095 B.C.), brought the city to great prominence. He took the titles “King of Ur, King of Sumer and Akkad.” Thus was founded the Third Dynasty of Ur (2113–2006 B.C.). This period was one of great peace and prosperity, the high point of the city’s existence. This diagram of the city represents the Third Dynasty of Ur, and it includes a central palace and a temple complex. The latter has as its center the Ziggurat of Ur-Nammu that is dedicated to the moon god Nanna. Ur was the birthplace of the Hebrew patriarch Abraham (Gen. 11:27–32), and the plan represents the city that he would have been familiar with.
Abraham - Ur to Canaan (Genesis 11)
Abram was born in Ur, a powerful city in southern Babylonia. Abram’s father, Terah, eventually led the family toward the land of Canaan but decided to settle in Haran. After Terah’s death, the Lord called Abram to go “to the land that I will show you” (Canaan), which he promises to give to Abram’s descendants.
Abraham - Battle of Siddim (Genesis 14)
When five Canaanite cities rebelled against their four Mesopotamian overlords, the four kings led a campaign to reassert their control over the region. The campaign culminated in a battle in the Siddim Valley, and Abram’s nephew Lot, who was living in Sodom, was captured and carried off. When Abram was informed of Lot’s capture, he and his men pursued the four kings to Dan, where they recaptured Lot and chased the fleeing forces as far as Hobah, north of Damascus.
Abraham - Sodom & Gomorrah (Genesis 19)
At Abraham’s request, the Lord spared Lot and his family from the destruction that came upon Sodom and Gomorrah. Afterwards, Lot’s two daughters feared that their isolation would result in the end of their family line and they plotted to get their father drunk in order that they might conceive children by him. Each daughter bore a son, from whom the Moabites and the Ammonites were descendants.
Abraham - Journey to Paddan-Aram (Genesis 24)
When Isaac was 40 years old, Abraham sent his eldest servant back to Paddan-aram, the land of his relatives, to obtain a wife for Isaac. The servant found Rebekah, the granddaughter of Abraham’s brother Nahor, and brought her back to Isaac, who was living in the Negeb. Later, Jacob would make this same journey as he fled from his brother Esau.
Jacob - Journey to Canaan (Genesis 32)
After acquiring wealth in Paddan-aram, Jacob returned to Canaan. He came to Mahanaim, where he sent his household ahead of him and crossed the Jabbok alone. There he wrestled with a mysterious man until morning and named the place Peniel (also called Penuel). Jacob then encountered his brother Esau, who had come from Edom to meet him. After the two were reconciled, Esau returned to Edom, while Jacob journeyed to Canaan.
Joseph - Journey to Egypt (Genesis 45)
Jacob sent Joseph from Hebron to Shechem to find his brothers, who had been pasturing their father’s flock. When Joseph arrived, he learned that his brothers had gone on to Dothan, so he went there and found them. His brothers threw him into a pit and later sold him to some Ishmaelite spice traders on their way from Gilead to Egypt. The traders took Joseph to Egypt and sold him to Potiphar, the captain of Pharaoh’s guard.
Joseph - Egypt in the Times of Jospeh (Edited ESV map)* (Genesis 46-47)
Joseph arrived in Egypt during the reign of the Twelfth Dynasty, arguably the zenith of Egypt’s power. Shortly before this era, Upper and Lower Egypt had been unified under one ruler, and now Egyptian influence expanded south and east. The regular flooding of the Nile River provided a relatively stable supply of food and offered some degree of protection from the famines suffered by other lands of the ancient Near East.
EXODUS
Exodus, written and compiled by Moses, narrates Israel's liberation from Egypt, aiming to affirm their identity, highlight their covenant with God, and establish legal and religious foundations. Prophetically, it anticipates Jesus as the ultimate liberator and mediator of a new covenant. Symbolism like the Passover lamb aligns with Christ's sacrificial role, and the Red Sea crossing parallels baptism's deliverance symbolism. The Mosaic law foreshadows the New Testament's fulfillment in Jesus. Set against Ancient Near Eastern cultures, Exodus shapes Israel's understanding of God's uniqueness and exclusive worship. Its enduring relevance lies in depicting divine intervention, covenantal ties, and anticipating Jesus' redemptive role.
Chapter 1-18
Chapter 19-40
Egypt & the Exodus Route (Edited ESV map)* (Exodus 12-19)
Among the many theories regarding the route of the exodus, the route to Jebel al-Lawz (located in Midian) is considered according to archeological and Biblical evidence to be the most plausible location for Mount Sinai (Mount Horeb or "the Mountain of God") (see Exodus 3.1; 4.19; Acts 7.29-30; Galatians 4.25). Beginning at Rameses, the Israelites journeyed to Succoth, but these two sites are the only ones on the route identified with certainty. From there they traveled to Etham and Pi-hahiroth, where they crossed the Red Sea. From there they traveled to Marah, Elim, Rephidim, and finally Mount Sinai located in Midian in the Arabian peninsula.
Chapter 1-18
Chapter 19-40
Egypt & the Exodus Route (Edited ESV map)* (Exodus 12-19)
Among the many theories regarding the route of the exodus, the route to Jebel al-Lawz (located in Midian) is considered according to archeological and Biblical evidence to be the most plausible location for Mount Sinai (Mount Horeb or "the Mountain of God") (see Exodus 3.1; 4.19; Acts 7.29-30; Galatians 4.25). Beginning at Rameses, the Israelites journeyed to Succoth, but these two sites are the only ones on the route identified with certainty. From there they traveled to Etham and Pi-hahiroth, where they crossed the Red Sea. From there they traveled to Marah, Elim, Rephidim, and finally Mount Sinai located in Midian in the Arabian peninsula.
LEVITICUS
Leviticus, written and compiled by Moses, addresses the Israelite community, focusing on rituals, laws, and holiness. It stems from the aftermath of the Exodus, providing guidelines for worship, ethical conduct, and ceremonial purity. While seemingly distant, Leviticus lays the groundwork for understanding God's holiness and humanity's need for redemption. Its prophetic connection to Jesus emerges through the sacrificial system, foreshadowing Christ's atonement and role as the ultimate High Priest. Leviticus seeks to instruct the Israelites in maintaining a holy relationship with God, fostering a community reflective of God's character.
General Setting of Leviticus (Edited ESV map)*
The book of Exodus finishes with Moses and Israel having constructed and assembled the tabernacle at the base of Mount Sinai. The book of Leviticus primarily records the instructions the Lord gives to Moses from the tent of meeting, but also includes narrative of a few events related to the tabernacle.
General Setting of Leviticus (Edited ESV map)*
The book of Exodus finishes with Moses and Israel having constructed and assembled the tabernacle at the base of Mount Sinai. The book of Leviticus primarily records the instructions the Lord gives to Moses from the tent of meeting, but also includes narrative of a few events related to the tabernacle.
NUMBERS
Numbers, written and compiled by Moses, addresses the Israelites post-Exodus, detailing their wilderness journey. It serves as a historical and theological record, emphasizing obedience based in trust, and divine guidance. Prophetic links to Jesus are revealed in the narrative's themes, like the bronze serpent, foreshadow aspects of Christ's redemptive work. Numbers may have been written to instruct subsequent generations, emphasizing the consequences of disobedience and the importance of unwavering trust in God's guidance during life's journey.
Journey Through the Wilderness (Edited ESV map)*
The book of Numbers details the Israelites’ experience in the wilderness as they journeyed from Mount Sinai to Canaan. As with the exodus, it is difficult to establish the exact route that the Israelites took, but it is generally believed that they headed east from Mount Sinai until they reached the Red Sea, where they turned northward to the top of the gulf and on to Kadesh-barnea.
The 12 Spys in Canaan (Numbers 13)
When the Israelites first arrived at Kadesh-barnea, Moses dispatched 12 spies to scout out the Promised Land of Canaan. For 40 days the spies traveled throughout Canaan, from the Negeb to Rehob and back again—a distance of over 500 miles (805 km).
Israel's Failed Attempt (Numbers 14)
After the Lord had condemned the people for refusing to enter Canaan, a group of Israelites changed their mind and tried to go up, even though neither Moses nor the ark of the covenant went with them. When they reached the hill country, they were beaten back by the Amalekites and Canaanites, who chased them all the way to Hormah.
Israel Defeats King Sihon & King Og (Numbers 21)
As with Edom and Moab, the Israelites asked permission to pass through the territory of King Sihon, but he refused. When Sihon attacked the Israelites at Jahaz, the Israelites defeated him and captured his land. Later, Moses dispatched troops to capture Jazer, and then they turned north and were met by King Og’s forces. They defeated Og’s forces and took control of his land as well.
Balaam Blesses Israel (Numbers 22)
Concerned that the vast number of Israelites would overwhelm his land, King Balak of Moab summoned Balaam to come and curse them. Balaam traveled from the region of the Euphrates River, and Balak went out to meet him at a city on the Arnon River at the border of his land. Balak took Balaam to Bamoth-baal, Pisgah, and Peor to curse the Israelites, but each time Balaam blessed them.
Review of the Journey to Canaan (Numbers 33)
After many years of wandering in the wilderness as a consequence of their sin, the Israelites set out from Kadesh-barnea toward the Promised Land. It is difficult to know for certain the exact route they took from Kadesh-barnea to the plains of Moab, but it is possible that they followed a course that went around the lands of Edom and Moab along a desert route, after being refused passage through those lands—or they may have taken another route, through the heart of Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway.
Boundaries of the Promised Land (Numbers 34)
The original boundaries of the Promised Land as defined in Numbers 34 are somewhat different from the boundaries of the land that the Israelites eventually occupied. The original boundaries included the mountainous area north of Sidon and Damascus, but the Israelites never occupied this area during the settlement period. Conversely, the original boundaries did not include land east of the Jordan River, but the Israelites occupied this land after capturing it from Og and Sihon.
Journey Through the Wilderness (Edited ESV map)*
The book of Numbers details the Israelites’ experience in the wilderness as they journeyed from Mount Sinai to Canaan. As with the exodus, it is difficult to establish the exact route that the Israelites took, but it is generally believed that they headed east from Mount Sinai until they reached the Red Sea, where they turned northward to the top of the gulf and on to Kadesh-barnea.
The 12 Spys in Canaan (Numbers 13)
When the Israelites first arrived at Kadesh-barnea, Moses dispatched 12 spies to scout out the Promised Land of Canaan. For 40 days the spies traveled throughout Canaan, from the Negeb to Rehob and back again—a distance of over 500 miles (805 km).
Israel's Failed Attempt (Numbers 14)
After the Lord had condemned the people for refusing to enter Canaan, a group of Israelites changed their mind and tried to go up, even though neither Moses nor the ark of the covenant went with them. When they reached the hill country, they were beaten back by the Amalekites and Canaanites, who chased them all the way to Hormah.
Israel Defeats King Sihon & King Og (Numbers 21)
As with Edom and Moab, the Israelites asked permission to pass through the territory of King Sihon, but he refused. When Sihon attacked the Israelites at Jahaz, the Israelites defeated him and captured his land. Later, Moses dispatched troops to capture Jazer, and then they turned north and were met by King Og’s forces. They defeated Og’s forces and took control of his land as well.
Balaam Blesses Israel (Numbers 22)
Concerned that the vast number of Israelites would overwhelm his land, King Balak of Moab summoned Balaam to come and curse them. Balaam traveled from the region of the Euphrates River, and Balak went out to meet him at a city on the Arnon River at the border of his land. Balak took Balaam to Bamoth-baal, Pisgah, and Peor to curse the Israelites, but each time Balaam blessed them.
Review of the Journey to Canaan (Numbers 33)
After many years of wandering in the wilderness as a consequence of their sin, the Israelites set out from Kadesh-barnea toward the Promised Land. It is difficult to know for certain the exact route they took from Kadesh-barnea to the plains of Moab, but it is possible that they followed a course that went around the lands of Edom and Moab along a desert route, after being refused passage through those lands—or they may have taken another route, through the heart of Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway.
Boundaries of the Promised Land (Numbers 34)
The original boundaries of the Promised Land as defined in Numbers 34 are somewhat different from the boundaries of the land that the Israelites eventually occupied. The original boundaries included the mountainous area north of Sidon and Damascus, but the Israelites never occupied this area during the settlement period. Conversely, the original boundaries did not include land east of the Jordan River, but the Israelites occupied this land after capturing it from Og and Sihon.
DEUTERONOMY
Deuteronomy, written and compiled by Moses, addresses the Israelites before entering the Promised Land. Written toward the end of the 40-year wandering, it emphasizes covenant renewal, obedience, and exclusive worship. Its prophetic connection to Jesus is seen in Moses as a foreshadowing figure and the call to heed a coming prophet like him. Deuteronomy serves as a farewell address and legal code, instructing Israel in ethical conduct and God's commandments. Chapter 34, describing Moses' death, is likely written by Joshua.
General Setting of Deuteronomy (Edited ESV map)*
The book of Deuteronomy recounts Moses’ words to the Israelites as they waited on the plains of Moab to enter Canaan. Moses begins by reviewing the events of Israel’s journey from Mount Sinai (or Mount Horeb) in Midian to the plains of Moab.
Renewing the Covenant at Mount Ebal (Deuteronomy 11 & 27)
Looking ahead to the day when the Israelites would occupy Canaan, Moses commanded the people to renew the covenant after they entered the land by placing a new copy of the terms of the covenant on Mount Ebal and reciting the blessings and curses to each other on Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal.
Reviewing the Victory Over King Sihon & King Og (Deuteronomy 29)
Deuteronomy reviews how the Israelites defeated King Sihon when he refused them passage through his land and attacked them at Jahaz. Soon afterward, the Israelites spied out Jazer and captured it. As they headed north from Jazer, the Israelites were attacked by King Og’s forces at Edrei, but they defeated him and took control of his land as well.
General Setting of Deuteronomy (Edited ESV map)*
The book of Deuteronomy recounts Moses’ words to the Israelites as they waited on the plains of Moab to enter Canaan. Moses begins by reviewing the events of Israel’s journey from Mount Sinai (or Mount Horeb) in Midian to the plains of Moab.
Renewing the Covenant at Mount Ebal (Deuteronomy 11 & 27)
Looking ahead to the day when the Israelites would occupy Canaan, Moses commanded the people to renew the covenant after they entered the land by placing a new copy of the terms of the covenant on Mount Ebal and reciting the blessings and curses to each other on Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal.
Reviewing the Victory Over King Sihon & King Og (Deuteronomy 29)
Deuteronomy reviews how the Israelites defeated King Sihon when he refused them passage through his land and attacked them at Jahaz. Soon afterward, the Israelites spied out Jazer and captured it. As they headed north from Jazer, the Israelites were attacked by King Og’s forces at Edrei, but they defeated him and took control of his land as well.
| THE SCROLLS OF THE PROPHETS NEVI'IM |
Nevi'im, the Hebrew word for "prophets", is the second division of the Hebrew Scriptures. The conclusion of the Torah, particularly in Deuteronomy, sets the stage for the Nevi'im (Prophets) by emphasizing adherence to God's commands. Joshua, the first book of Nevi'im, seamlessly continues the narrative, detailing Israel's entry into the Promised Land. This book illustrates a literary and thematic link between the two books: the Law and the Prophets.
EARLY PROPHETS
JOSHUA
Likely compiled by Joshua, the book recounts Israel's conquest of Canaan. It emphasizes God's faithfulness, the importance of obedience, and the fulfillment of divine promises. The Canaan conquest foreshadows Jesus' themes of victory and inheritance. Joshua seeks to inspire Israel's faithfulness, detailing God's role in securing the Promised Land and reaffirming the covenant with Israel, reinforcing the importance of obedience and trust.
General Setting of Joshua
The book of Joshua recounts the Israelite conquest of the land of Canaan under the command of Joshua. The book opens at Shittim with Joshua’s commission from the Lord as the leader of the Israelites, progresses through his victories over the Canaanite kings and the allotment of the land, and ends with Joshua’s charge to the people to remain faithful to the Lord.
Joshua Sends Spies to Jericho from Shittim (Joshua 2)
Joshua prepared to enter Canaan by sending two spies from Shittim to scout out the land and the city of Jericho. The spies spent the first night in Jericho at the house of Rahab the prostitute, who hid the men and sent away the soldiers sent by the king of Jericho to capture them. After traveling deeper into the hills and hiding for three days, the spies headed back across the Jordan River to report to Joshua at Shittim.
Israel Enters Canaan (Joshua 3-5)
After crossing the Jordan River and entering Canaan, the Israelites set up camp at Gilgal. From there they continued to move westward, first destroying the imposing city of Jericho and then defeating the smaller town of Ai. Later the Gibeonites (also called Hivites) deceived the Israelites into signing a peace treaty with them.
Covenant Confirmed at Mount Ebal (Joshua 8)
Joshua fulfilled Moses’ command to renew the covenant at Shechem by placing copies of the covenant on Mount Ebal and directing the Israelite tribes to shout the blessings and curses of the covenant to each other across the valley separating Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim (see also Deuteronomy 11:29–30; 27:4–13).
Israel Southern Campaign in Canaan (Joshua 10)
Upon hearing that the Gibeonites signed a peace treaty with the Israelites, five Amorite cities attacked Gibeon. Joshua’s forces came up from Gilgal to defend the Gibeonites, and they chased the Amorites as far as Azekah and Makkedah. Joshua’s forces continued their attack until they had captured Libnah, Lachish, Makkedah, Eglon, Debir, Hebron, and most likely Jarmuth.
Israel Northern Campaign in Canaan (Joshua 11)
After Joshua’s forces defeated several Amorite kings in the south, the king of Hazor assembled the northern Canaanite kings to battle the Israelites. Joshua and his men defeated the Canaanites at the waters of Merom and pursued them to Great Sidon and the Valley of Mizpeh. Then Joshua turned back and captured the city of Hazor.
Kings Defeated by Israel
The Israelites captured many key cities throughout Canaan, although apparently some of them were later taken back by the Canaanites (e.g., Jerusalem). Under the leadership of Moses, the Israelites captured towns east of the Jordan River, including Ashtaroth and Heshbon. Joshua led the Israelites to capture many towns west of the Jordan River (the locations of Geder and Lasharon are unknown).
Israel's Land Allotments by Tribe
During the conquest of Canaan, Joshua allotted the land to the tribes of Israel. These boundaries, however, do not necessarily reflect the land each tribe actually inhabited by the end of the conquest. Several tribes, such as Dan, were unable to drive out the Canaanites that lived in much of their allotted territory (19:47), while other tribes controlled portions of land that were not originally allotted to them (e.g., 17:11).
General Setting of Joshua
The book of Joshua recounts the Israelite conquest of the land of Canaan under the command of Joshua. The book opens at Shittim with Joshua’s commission from the Lord as the leader of the Israelites, progresses through his victories over the Canaanite kings and the allotment of the land, and ends with Joshua’s charge to the people to remain faithful to the Lord.
Joshua Sends Spies to Jericho from Shittim (Joshua 2)
Joshua prepared to enter Canaan by sending two spies from Shittim to scout out the land and the city of Jericho. The spies spent the first night in Jericho at the house of Rahab the prostitute, who hid the men and sent away the soldiers sent by the king of Jericho to capture them. After traveling deeper into the hills and hiding for three days, the spies headed back across the Jordan River to report to Joshua at Shittim.
Israel Enters Canaan (Joshua 3-5)
After crossing the Jordan River and entering Canaan, the Israelites set up camp at Gilgal. From there they continued to move westward, first destroying the imposing city of Jericho and then defeating the smaller town of Ai. Later the Gibeonites (also called Hivites) deceived the Israelites into signing a peace treaty with them.
Covenant Confirmed at Mount Ebal (Joshua 8)
Joshua fulfilled Moses’ command to renew the covenant at Shechem by placing copies of the covenant on Mount Ebal and directing the Israelite tribes to shout the blessings and curses of the covenant to each other across the valley separating Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim (see also Deuteronomy 11:29–30; 27:4–13).
Israel Southern Campaign in Canaan (Joshua 10)
Upon hearing that the Gibeonites signed a peace treaty with the Israelites, five Amorite cities attacked Gibeon. Joshua’s forces came up from Gilgal to defend the Gibeonites, and they chased the Amorites as far as Azekah and Makkedah. Joshua’s forces continued their attack until they had captured Libnah, Lachish, Makkedah, Eglon, Debir, Hebron, and most likely Jarmuth.
Israel Northern Campaign in Canaan (Joshua 11)
After Joshua’s forces defeated several Amorite kings in the south, the king of Hazor assembled the northern Canaanite kings to battle the Israelites. Joshua and his men defeated the Canaanites at the waters of Merom and pursued them to Great Sidon and the Valley of Mizpeh. Then Joshua turned back and captured the city of Hazor.
Kings Defeated by Israel
The Israelites captured many key cities throughout Canaan, although apparently some of them were later taken back by the Canaanites (e.g., Jerusalem). Under the leadership of Moses, the Israelites captured towns east of the Jordan River, including Ashtaroth and Heshbon. Joshua led the Israelites to capture many towns west of the Jordan River (the locations of Geder and Lasharon are unknown).
Israel's Land Allotments by Tribe
During the conquest of Canaan, Joshua allotted the land to the tribes of Israel. These boundaries, however, do not necessarily reflect the land each tribe actually inhabited by the end of the conquest. Several tribes, such as Dan, were unable to drive out the Canaanites that lived in much of their allotted territory (19:47), while other tribes controlled portions of land that were not originally allotted to them (e.g., 17:11).
JUDGES
Judges, likely a compilation by various authors, explores Israel's cyclical disobedience and God's deliverance through local city-state military or priestly leaders. It addresses post-conquest Israel navigating through a chaotic pattern of it's people's failure and God's grace. This book is marked by a downward spiral of leadership revealing the need for a true king setting the stage for a future messiah who would faithfully lead a righteous kingdom.
SAMUEL (1 & 2)
1 & 2 Samuel (one book in the Hebrew Scriptures) has been credited to prophets like Samuel, Nathan, and Gad. It tells the story of Israel's transition from local city-state leaders to a monarchy, focusing on Samuel, Saul, and David. The audience is post-Joshua Israelites seeking leadership guidance. It explores the tension between human leadership and God's sovereignty. The foretelling of an eternal Davidic King in Samuel points to its realization in Jesus — the Prophet, Priest-King. Samuel emphasizes the necessity of a just ruler, paving the way for the eventual coming of the Messiah.
1 Samuel
2 Samuel
1 Samuel
2 Samuel
KINGS (1 & 2)
1 & 2 Kings (one book in the Hebrew Scriptures) was likely compiled by prophets like Jeremiah. It details Israel's monarchy from Solomon to the Babylonian exile. Written for post-exilic Israelites, it reflects on the nation's historical and spiritual decline. Kings highlights the consequences of rejecting God's kingship and the failure of human kings while revealing the need for a faithful Davidic ruler. Prophetic links to Jesus appear in the anticipation of an ideal king who fulfills God's covenant. Kings, while chronicling Israel's struggles, underscores the longing for a righteous king and the ultimate reign of the Messiah.
LATTER PROPHETS
ISAIAH
Isaiah (c.740 BC - 681 BC), writen and compiled by both Isaiah of Jerusalem and later prophets, addresses a divided Israel with the primary audience being Judahites facing political turmoil. Isaiah's focus on themes of covenant faithfulness and kingship emphasizes faithful Israel's call to trust God amid crises. Prophetic connections to Jesus emerge in Isaiah's Messianic prophecies, presenting Him as paradoxically a suffering servant and conquering King. The book urges repentance, foretelling a righteous ruler who will bring salvation. Isaiah offers hope in God's sovereignty, justice, and the ultimate fulfillment found in the person and work of Jesus.
Chapter 1-39
Chapter 40-66
Chapter 1-39
Chapter 40-66
JEREMIAH
Jeremiah (c.626 BC - 586 BC), authored by Jeremiah and his scribe Baruch, addresses Judahites before and during the Babylonian exile. The audience grapples with societal decay due to their covenant disobedience. Therefore, Jeremiah's underlying themes of judgment, restoration, and hope all prophetically point to Jesus as the future righteous branch of David. Jeremiah warns of consequences for rebellion but promises a new covenant. Despite the impending exile, the book points to God's faithfulness and the ultimate redemption that Jesus, as the promised Messiah, brings to fulfillment.
EZEKIEL
Ezekiel (July 593 BC - April 571 BC), speaks to exiled Judahites in Babylon. His themes of God's glory and judgment are revealed through metaphorical visions. Ezekiel portrayal of a new temple and the vision of God's Spirit restoring life foreshadow Jesus' transformative work and coming Kingdom. Amid exile and judgment, Ezekiel emphasizes hope in God's future restoration, aligning with the broader biblical narrative of redemption and renewal in Jesus.
Chapter 1-33
Chapter 34-48
Chapter 1-33
Chapter 34-48
BOOK OF THE TWELVE PROPHETS
HOSEA
Hosea (c.750-733 BC), addresses Northern Israel before its fall to Assyria (733-721 BC) as a result of their unfaithfulness. It highlights themes of covenant unfaithfulness as Hosea's relationship with his wife is used as a metaphor for God's relationship with Israel. Hosea's depiction of God's enduring love and the call for repentance foreshadows Jesus' fulfilling the faithful husand role to the Church (the Bride of Jesus) depicted in several New Testament works including the Gospels, Ephesians, and Revelation. Amidst the backdrop of idolatry, Hosea communicates God's commitment to Israel's redemption, restoration, and renewal as fulfilled in the New Testament Church.
JOEL
Joel (c.830 BC) speaks to Judah in general and Jerusalem specifically in the time of King Joash and Jehoiada the High Priest. Amidst locust plagues resulting in agricultural and economic distress Joel warns of a greater future Day of the Lord. While it may be a warning for Judah regarding a future Babylonian invasion (597 BC) its ulitimate fulfillment of the Day of the Lord was the time of Pentacost (c.30 AD) to the destruction of Jerusalem (70 AD). This is explicitely states in Joel's prophecy of the outpouring of God's Spirit fulfilled at Pentecost. Joel's message emphasizes repentance, faithful Israel's restoration (in the New Testament Church), and the hope of a renewed covenant relationship with God (as the Body of Jesus), contributing to the broader biblical narrative fulfilled in Jesus and the Church.
AMOS
Amos (c.760-750 BC), a herdsman from Tekoa, addresses prosperous Northern Israel amid social injustice. He condemns religious hypocrisy and calls for genuine worship and social justice as proof of one's true relationship with God. His timeless message resonates in the New Testament, aligning with Jesus' emphasis that one's relationship with God will be reflected in their attitude and actions toward those around them. Amos urges moral responsibility and foretells a future compassionate King-Priest, prefiguring Jesus.
OBADIAH
Obadiah (c.605-586 BC), a contemporary of Jeremiah, speaks to Edom during Judah's fall to Babylon (c.597 BC). Amid political tension, he denounces Edom's cruelty, anticipating themes of righteous judgment and restoration in the future Messiah. Emphasizing consequences of pride and injustice, Obadiah contributes to the broader biblical narrative as his prophecies align with New Testament teachings on the ultimate sovereign reign of God through King Jesus.
JONAH
Jonah (c.750~725 BC) is sent to Nineveh, Assyria's capital. Against a backdrop of Assyrian aggression toward Israel, he initially resists but later preaches a half-hearted one-sentence sermon of repentance. Jonah's three days in the large sea creature was Jesus' favorite way to illustrate his 3-day death and ensuing resurrection. The New Testament references Jonah, emphasizing his sign (example) as a parallel to Jesus. The book teaches divine compassion even for enemies. Jonah's story serves as a metaphor and meta-analysis of Scripture for God's universal mercy, resonating with Jesus' and Apostles teachings on repentance, forgiveness, and salvation for all.
MICAH
Micah (or Micaiah) (c.750-686 BC) addresses Judah while they enjoying comparative economic propsperity. This propsperity brought wealth and power in the hands of a few which brought with it social injustice. However, it was also a time of political turmoil and injustice in the middle of Assyrian threats. Micah, using contrasting prophetic messages of hope and doom, emphasizes social justice and calls for repentance. His prophecy of a ruler from Bethlehem echoes Messianic themes that find their fulfillment in the person of Jesus (i.e., the Gospels references Micah's prediction of Jesus' birthplace). Micah's message highlights God's expectations for right relational living and contributes to the broader Scriptural narrative of redemption and restoration in Jesus.
NAHUM
Nahum (c.663-612 BC) addresses the fall of Nineveh, the capital of Assyria. Amidst its oppression, he foretells Assyria's destruction. Nahum's prophecy contributes to the broader Scriptural narrative of God's justice and His triumphant Kingdom fulfilled in the New Testament which further draws on themes of divine judgment and right relational living. Nahum's message emphasizes the consequences of cruelty, oppression, and violence; revealing that any kingdom built on tyranny will eventually fall, as Assyria did. This resonates with the rest of Scripture — revealing God's ultimate sovereignty over nations.
HABAKKUK
Habakkuk (c.605 BC), a contemporary of Jeremiah, is a peak into the personal prayers and journal entries of a prophet as he questions God amid Babylonian threats to Judah. He addresses a confused audience (likely himself) who amidst religious ferver and dedication are under the immanent threat of invasion, tyranny, and injustice. Habakkuk emphasises faith amid difficult and uncertain circumstances by revealing his vulnerability and real emotional disagreements toward God while still trusting that He is good. He affirms that the righteous, regardless of circumstance, will live by faith which is revealed in the ministry of Jesus — who himself disagreed with God yet trusted and submitted to His plan. Habakkuk's prophetic dialogue contributes to biblical themes of trust in God's sovereignty and justice, encouraging a steadfast faith in times of turmoil, a concept later emphasized in the New Testament.
ZEPHANIAH
Zephaniah (c.640-609 BC) addresses Judah during a period of idolatry and social injustice amidst the attempted reforms of King Josiah (see 2 Kings 21.26-23.20; 2 Chronicles 33.25-35.27). Amid Assyrian and Babylonian threats, he warns of divine judgment. Zephaniah's message contributes to the biblical theme of God's judgment and restoration and the anticipated hope of a coming just and loving Messiah in Jesus. The New Testament, especially that of Revelation, echoes Zephaniah's call for repentance and reveals Jesus as the perfect King-Priest. Zephaniah's prophecy underscores the consequences of disobedience and the hope of eventual redemption, aligning with broader biblical narratives fulfilled in Jesus.
HAGGAI
Haggai (c.520 BC) prophecies over a four-month period during the Persian King Darius' second year. As a contemporary of Zechariah, he urges returned exiles from Persia to rebuild Jerusalem and its Temple. Facing economic challenges, he stresses the Temple reconstruction as a sign of God's redemption. Haggai, having witnessed the former Temple's destruction under Babylon, highlights the importance of faithfulness and prioritizing relationship with God through honoring His Temple. This aligns with Scripture's theme of obedience producing blessing. The rebuilt Temple signifies God's future glory in the Messianic Kingdom. Haggai's prophetic focus on obedience contributes to the broader Scriptural narrative fulfilled in Jesus, emphasizing obedience brings the Holy Spirit's encouragement and empowerment.
ZECHARIAH
Zechariah (c.480 BC), a post-exilic priest and prophet, he was a contemporary of Haggai and addressed the returned Babylonian exiles who were rebuilding Jerusalem. He was among those who returned to Judah in 538 BC and his ministry likely started two months after Haggai's first message but would continue many years beyond Haggai. During Persian rule, he prophecies the rebuilding of the Temple, the coming of a Messianic King, and the restoration and renewal of God's faithful people. The New Testament cites Zechariah's Messianic prophecies as being fulfilled by Jesus — with incredible specificity — in his role as the promised and perfect Prophet, Priest, and King. Zechariah's fulfilled prophecies encourage faith, offer hope in God's redemptive plan, and fit the broader Scriptural narrative that points to Jesus.
MALACHI
Malachi (c.433-430 BC), a post-exilic prophet, addresses a spiritually apathetic Judah, post-restoration of the Temple. Judah was responding to drought and famine with indifference and spiritual lethargy. Amid Persian rule, he rebukes corruption of Israel and especially that of the religious ruling class and calls for repentance and reform. Malachi's rebuke is focused the people's doubting of God's love and the faithlessness of both priests and people. His prophecies anticipate Jesus' Messianic coming and a messenger, John the Baptizer, preparing his way. Malachi's message underscores God's faithfulness and how He designed people to trust Him.
| THE SCROLLS OF THE WRITINGS KETUVIM |
Ketuvim, the Hebrew word for "Writings", is the third division of the Hebrew Scriptures. The conclusion of Nevi'im, often marked by themes of restoration and hope, transitions into Ketuvim (Writings). For example, Ezra-Nehemiah depicts the return from exile, echoing the prophetic theme. Psalms, the first book in Ketuvim, reflects on God's faithfulness, creating a literary continuum in themes of restoration and devotion.
THE POETIC SCROLLS
PSALMS
Psalms, composed over several centuries, reflect the diverse raw emotions of humanity behind the experiences of Israel. Its final composition and arrangement was the work of postexilic temple personnel and was completed by 3rd century BC. These poetic expressions of joy, sorrow, grief, anger, abandonment, and praise form Israel's hymnbook and prayer guide. Several Psalms prophetically foreshadow vital events of Jesus including his life, suffering, resurrection, and role as the Messianic Priest-King. The New Testament frequently draws from the Psalms, connecting its fulfilled themes to Jesus' and his identity as the Son of God.
PROVERBS
Proverbs (compiled from various authors including Solomon, Agur, and Lemuel between 900 and 500 BC) offers wisdom for daily living, drawing from ancient Near Eastern traditions. It emphasizes that wisdom and knowledge are essential for navigating life successfully and avoiding pitfalls. Proverbs also underscores how a reverent fear of God is the beginning of maturity but not its conclusion. While it provides practical advice for healthy living — often contrasting wisdom to foolishness — its sayings need to be considered as God-desired probabilities rather than God-ordained certainties. Jesus' teachings on right relational living and the New Testament's emphasis on wisdom all find their basis in the Proverbs.
JOB
Job unveils a cosmic gamble between God and a divine council member, exploring human suffering and divine justice. God wagers the faithfulness of his human creation amid suffering, contending against the satan's argument (the "adversary", "prosecutor", or "challenger") that humans will abandon their loyality to God in the face of suffering. Job has two primary dates to consider: (1) the date of the man Job and his historical setting, likely between 2000 and 1000 BC; and (2) the date of the inspired writing of the book, likely sometime between Solomon and Israel's exile. It challenges Hebrew wisdom literature by compelling the reader to question and reframe traditional platitudes. Job reveals the divine council's role in God's sovereignty and human faithfulness. Job's suffering prefigures Jesus in illustrating themes of endurance and trust in God's plan. The New Testament echoes Job's questions into suffering and the wisdom in yielding to God's overarching goodness.
THE MEGILLOT (SCROLLS)
SONG OF SOLOMON
The Song of Solomon (c.990 - 950 BC), or Song of Songs, celebrates love and intimacy within marriage. Against the backdrop of Solomon's reign, it explores romantic affection and devotion. Interpreted literally, it serves as a beautiful portrayal of human love and God's design for marriage, highlighting the sanctity and joy of marital intimacy. Through poetic and euphemistic language, Song of Solomon celebrates the physical and emotional intimacy of a husband and wife. However, taking an allegorical approach, it can reflect the love relationship between Jesus and his bride, the Church, in the New Testament.
RUTH
There are two dates to consider for Ruth: when the events unfolded and when the narrative was penned. Presumably compiled by Samuel (c.1000 BC), it recounts occurrences during the judges' era (c. mid-1100s BC). Amidst famine, Ruth, a Moabite widow, exhibits unwavering loyalty to her Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi. The story illuminates Ruth's exemplary character and divine providence, emphasizing themes of loyalty, kindness, and redemption. Her mention in Jesus' lineage signifies her importance, with Boaz, her kinsman-redeemer, foreshadowing Jesus' redemptive role. The New Testament references Ruth, affirming her faithfulness and the inclusiveness of God's grace. Ruth's link to Jesus' genealogy underscores God's redemptive plan through unlikely individuals, highlighting the significance of loyalty, faithfulness, and kindness in God's Kingdom.
LAMENTATIONS
Lamentations, (shortly after c.586 BC), was composed by Jeremiah and consists of his reflections on the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon in 586 BCE. Amidst despair and mourning, it laments the city's devastation and the suffering of its people. Its raw emotion and expression of grief are revealed through its poetic structure and themes of loss and lament. Lamentations foreshadowing Jesus' suffering and later destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD. Its vivid portrayal of sorrow and hopelessness underscores the consequences of sin and the need for repentance. Lamentations' timeless message resonates with humanity's experiences of suffering, pointing to the hope of redemption and restoration found in Jesus, the Messiah.
ECCLESIASTES
Ecclesiastes (prior to c.931 BC) reflects on life's meaning and purpose. Set against the backdrop of Solomon's experiential wisdom later in his life, it explores the futility of human endeavors and the transient nature of existence. Its existential reflections and pursuit of wisdom underscores its philosophical nature and themes of meaninglessness and mortality. Ecclesiastes anticipates Jesus' teachings on the vanity of worldly pursuits and the importance of seeking eternal significance. Its emphasis on fearing God and keeping His commandments (summed up in Deuteronomy 6.5; Leviticus 19.18) echoes New Testament summations of God's Kingdom. Ecclesiastes' timeless message challenges readers to find meaning beyond materialism and to prioritize a relationship with God, offering wisdom for living a purposeful life in light of the Kingdom of God.
ESTHER
Esther, set during the Persian Empire in the reign of Ahasuerus (486-465 BC), was likely composed shortly after the events took place (c.460 BC). The book of Esther recounts the Jewish heroine, Hadassah's (Esther's Jewish name) courage in saving her people from genocide. It reveals God's providence is often coupled with human assistance. This is shown through the absence of direct divine intervention and focus on human actions. Esther's story symbolizes God's hidden hand in preserving His people, foreshadowing Jesus' role as Savior. Its message of courage and faithfulness resonates with New Testament principles of standing firm amid adversity. Esther's inclusion in the canon underscores God's sovereignty and care for His people, highlighting the importance of trust and obedience in His plan for redemption while also emphasizing the need for His people to take active roles in their story.
THE PROPHETIC SCROLL
DANIEL
Daniel (compiled shortly after the capture of Babylon by Cyrus II the Persian in 539 BC) takes place during the years of 605 BC (when King Neuchadnezzar of Babylon captured Judah) to just after 539 BC (when Persia captured Babylon). Daniel's contemporaries include Jeremiah, Zephaniah (pre-Babylonian captivity) and Habbakuk (post-Babylonian captivity). Mostly set during the Babylonian exile, Daniel and his companions demonstrate unwavering faith amidst trials. Daniel's visions anticipate Jesus' coming as the Messianic Son of Man and the establishment of his Kingdom. With its ultimate fulfillment taking place in the first century (culminating at the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD), Daniel's narrative inspires faithfulness and trust in God's providence, especially offering hope of divine justice in times of adversity.
HISTORY
EZRA/NEHEMIAH
Ezra and Nehemiah were one in the Hebrew Scriptures. Origen (AD 185-253) is the first writer known to distinguish between the two works, which he called I Ezra and II Ezra. Although they were regarded as one writing, the caption to Nehemiah 1.1 indicates they were two seperate compositions. Ezra-Nehemiah were also likely compiled by the same editor of 1 and 2 Chronicles. This view point is based on certain characteristics common to both compositions. For example, the verses at the end of Chronicles and at the beginning of Ezra are virtually identical, and both of these writings exhibit a fondness for lists. These writings recount the return of the Jewish exiles from Babylonian captivity (c.538 BC) to rebuild Jerusalem and restore worship in the temple (c.516 BC). Nehemiah went to Jerusalem in 445 BC and led the people in rebuilding the walls. With Ezra, he provided leadership for the people. Likely composed shortly after the events, they emphasize the importance of faithfulness to God's law and the restoration of the community. Ezra and Nehemiah anticipate Jesus' role in restoring and renewing God's people as spiritual Temples and priests. Ezra and Nehemiah's narrative highlights the importance of understanding Scripture and dependence upon God through prayer, both offering lessons for the Church today.
CHRONICLES (1 & 2)
1 & 2 Chronicles were one in the Hebrew Scriptures. Likely compiled by the same editor of the Ezra-Nehemiah scroll (c.400's BC), they retell Israel's history from Adam to the Babylonian exile, emphasizing the importance of Davidic kingship and temple worship. Likely composed after the events they describe, they serve to remind the post-exilic community of their heritage and God's faithfulness. 1 & 2 Chronicles foreshadow Jesus' role as the promised Messiah, descendant of David, and the ultimate ruler of his Kingdom. The New Testament references their genealogies, affirming Jesus' Davidic lineage. 1 & 2 Chronicles' narrative underscores the importance of faithfulness to God's covenant and the restoration of a heart-felt dependence upon God, offering encouragement and guidance for the Church community.
| THE SECOND TEMPLE WRITINGS APOCRYPHA |
The Apocrypha is a collection of Jewish writings composed between the timeframe refered to as The Second Temple period — specifically between about 400 BC to 100 BC. These books —such as Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, and Maccabees — offer history, wisdom, and stories of faith during times of exile, oppression, and cultural tension. While not part of the Hebrew Scriptures, they were included in the Septuagint and shaped early Christian thought, bridging the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament.
TOBIT
Tobit (c.300-201 BC) is a Jewish narrative set during the Assyrian exile (8th–7th century BC). It tells the story of Tobit, a righteous Israelite in Nineveh, and his son Tobias, who embarks on a journey aided by the angel Raphael. Against a backdrop of exile and oppression, the book highlights themes of faithfulness, almsgiving, prayer, and divine providence. Marriage and family loyalty are emphasized through Tobias and Sarah’s union. Theologically, Tobit anticipates New Testament themes: angelic ministry, God’s care for the marginalized, and healing through divine intervention. The figure of the angel foreshadows Christ’s mediating role, while the story’s focus on redemption, restoration, and covenant faithfulness resonates with Jesus’ teachings on faith, forgiveness, and God’s kingdom breaking into human suffering.
JUDITH
Judith (c. 200-100 BC) is set during an Assyrian aggression, though the book intentionally blends historical details in a symbolic, stylized way rather than reflecting a single real invasion. However, Judith was likely was composed during Jewish struggles under Hellenistic oppression. It presents Israel’s survival under foreign threat, showing God’s deliverance through Judith, a devout widow whose courage, faith, and prayer lead to the defeat of the Assyrian general Holofernes. Her victory highlights God’s pattern of salvation through humility and weakness, foreshadowing Jesus’ triumph over sin and death. Early Christians also saw Judith as a type of Mary: a faithful woman whose devotion secured deliverance for God’s people, anticipating Mary’s role in bearing the Messiah.
WISDOM OF SOLOMON
The Wisdom of Solomon (c.100-50 BC) was likely composed in Alexandria, Egypt. Though written under Solomon’s voice, it reflects a Hellenistic Jewish context, addressing Jews tempted by Greek philosophy and Gentiles skeptical of Israel’s God. It presents wisdom as God’s gift, guiding righteous living and exposing the futility of idolatry. The text exalts righteousness and portrays the suffering of the righteous one as vindicated by God, a theme fulfilled in Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection. Its vision of wisdom as both personified and eternal resonates with New Testament depictions of Jesus as the Logos (John 1) and the wisdom of God (1 Corinthians 1.24). It also shaped early Christian reflection on immortality, judgment, and the hope of eternal life. Prophetically, the Wisdom of Solomon anticipates Jesus as the embodiment of divine wisdom and the one who secures eternal life for God’s people.
SIRACH or ECCLESIASTICUS
Sirach (c. 200-175 BC), also called Ecclesiasticus, was composed in Hebrew by Jesus ben Sira in Jerusalem, later translated into Greek by his grandson c.132 BC. It addresses Jews navigating Hellenistic influence, urging faithfulness to the Torah as the path of wisdom. Deeply rooted in the Hebrew Scriptures, Sirach blends traditional wisdom with reflections on God’s covenant, law, and creation. It honors Israel’s ancestors, highlighting God’s ongoing work through history. While practical and moral in tone, Sirach anticipates the Messiah by presenting wisdom as personified, later fulfilled in Jesus as the wisdom of God (1 Corinthians 1.24). Its emphasis on humility, justice, and reliance on God resonates with Jesus’ teachings in the Sermon on the Mount. The New Testament echoes Sirach’s concern for the poor, integrity in speech, and the shaping of character. As a bridge between the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament, Sirach reinforces God’s wisdom embodied fully in Jesus.
BARUCH & LETTER OF JEREMIAH
Baruch
Baruch (c.200-299 BC) is attributed to Baruch, secretary of Jeremiah, though it was likely composed much later. The book is set during the Babylonian exile (6th century BC), giving voice to the exiles’ prayers, confessions, and hope for restoration. It reflects deep continuity with the Hebrew Scriptures, echoing themes of covenant, sin, repentance, and God’s mercy. Baruch encourages Israel to turn back to the law of Moses, presenting wisdom as God’s gift that brings life and security. Historically, it addressed Jews living under foreign domination, reminding them of their identity rooted in God’s promises. Prophetically, Baruch points toward Jesus as the embodiment of God’s wisdom and the fulfillment of the covenant. Its prayers of repentance and longing for redemption anticipate the gospel’s call to turn back to God through the Messiah. The New Testament echoes Baruch’s themes of forgiveness, new covenant renewal, and God’s salvation through Jesus.
Letter of Jeremiah
The Letter of Jeremiah, often included as a sixth chapter of Baruch, is framed as Jeremiah’s warning to exiles in Babylon but was likely composed in the 3rd–2nd century BC. Drawing on the backdrop of the Babylonian exile, it offers a sustained critique of idolatry, mocking lifeless statues that cannot see, hear, or save. Deeply tied to the Hebrew Scriptures, it echoes Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Psalms in affirming God’s sovereignty and the folly of worshiping created things. Written to Jews living under foreign influence, it reinforced covenant loyalty and exclusive devotion to the Lord. Prophetically, its rejection of idols anticipates the New Testament’s call to worship God “in spirit and truth” (John 4.24) and Paul’s warnings against idolatry. The letter points to Jesus as the true image of the invisible God (Colossians 1.15), contrasting the emptiness of idols with the living Messiah who redeems and rules. Its timeless message calls believers to faithfulness and trust in God alone.
Baruch
Baruch (c.200-299 BC) is attributed to Baruch, secretary of Jeremiah, though it was likely composed much later. The book is set during the Babylonian exile (6th century BC), giving voice to the exiles’ prayers, confessions, and hope for restoration. It reflects deep continuity with the Hebrew Scriptures, echoing themes of covenant, sin, repentance, and God’s mercy. Baruch encourages Israel to turn back to the law of Moses, presenting wisdom as God’s gift that brings life and security. Historically, it addressed Jews living under foreign domination, reminding them of their identity rooted in God’s promises. Prophetically, Baruch points toward Jesus as the embodiment of God’s wisdom and the fulfillment of the covenant. Its prayers of repentance and longing for redemption anticipate the gospel’s call to turn back to God through the Messiah. The New Testament echoes Baruch’s themes of forgiveness, new covenant renewal, and God’s salvation through Jesus.
Letter of Jeremiah
The Letter of Jeremiah, often included as a sixth chapter of Baruch, is framed as Jeremiah’s warning to exiles in Babylon but was likely composed in the 3rd–2nd century BC. Drawing on the backdrop of the Babylonian exile, it offers a sustained critique of idolatry, mocking lifeless statues that cannot see, hear, or save. Deeply tied to the Hebrew Scriptures, it echoes Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Psalms in affirming God’s sovereignty and the folly of worshiping created things. Written to Jews living under foreign influence, it reinforced covenant loyalty and exclusive devotion to the Lord. Prophetically, its rejection of idols anticipates the New Testament’s call to worship God “in spirit and truth” (John 4.24) and Paul’s warnings against idolatry. The letter points to Jesus as the true image of the invisible God (Colossians 1.15), contrasting the emptiness of idols with the living Messiah who redeems and rules. Its timeless message calls believers to faithfulness and trust in God alone.
AZARIAH & THE THREE JEWS
Azariah and the Three Jews (c.299-50 BC), an addition to the Greek version of Daniel, expands the fiery furnace story (Daniel 3). Likely composed in Greek, it reflects Jews under Hellenistic rule, encouraging faith under persecution. The Prayer of Azariah confesses Israel’s sin, appeals to God’s mercy, and affirms covenant faithfulness, while the Song of the Three Jews praises God for His creation and deliverance. Rooted in Hebrew Scripture themes of exile, judgment, and redemption, it emphasizes that God’s presence is with His people even in suffering. Prophetically, it foreshadows Jesus’ saving work, where deliverance comes not by human strength but by God’s power. The image of God’s presence in the furnace prefigures Jesus’ incarnation, suffering with and for humanity. In the New Testament, it resonates with the promise that Jesus is with believers in trials (Matthew 28.20) and that praise arises even amid hardship (Acts 16). It affirms hope, worship, and God’s sovereign rescue through Jesus.
SUZANNA
Suzanna (c.299-100 BC), an addition to the Greek version of Daniel, tells of a righteous woman falsely accused of adultery by two corrupt elders. It reflects Jewish life under foreign rule, where maintaining covenant integrity was under pressure. Set in the Babylonian exile, it reinforces Hebrew Scripture themes of justice, innocence, and God’s vindication of the faithful. Young Daniel, inspired by God, exposes the elders’ lies, securing Suzanna’s deliverance and establishing his role as a wise judge. The story highlights God’s protection of the innocent and His demand for truth, echoing biblical warnings against false witnesses (Deuteronomy 19). Prophetically, Suzanna foreshadows Jesus’ defense of the oppressed and innocent, mirrored in John's scribal addition in chapter 8 of the woman accused of adultery. It also anticipates the Messiah as the true Judge who brings justice and exposes hidden sin. The New Testament echoes Suzanna’s themes in calls to integrity, justice, and God’s ultimate vindication through Jesus.
BEL & THE DRAGON
Bel and the Dragon (c.299-100 BC), an addition to the Greek version of Daniel, contains two narratives challenging idolatry in Babylon. These stories are set during the exile but reflect later Jewish struggles under Hellenistic influence. In the first, Daniel exposes the fraud of Bel’s priests who secretly consume sacrifices, proving the idol powerless. In the second, he slays a living dragon worshiped as a god, again revealing the futility of idolatry. Both echo themes from the Hebrew Scriptures, especially Isaiah and Jeremiah, which denounce idols as lifeless creations of human hands. Historically, the book underscores Jewish faithfulness under cultural pressure. Prophetically, it anticipates Jesus’ victory over false gods and demonic powers, fulfilling the promise that God alone saves (Colossians 2.15). Just as Daniel unmasks lies and points to the living God, so Jesus reveals truth, exposes spiritual deception, and delivers His people from idolatry into true worship.
1-4 MACCABEES
The books of 1–4 Maccabees recount Israel’s struggle under Greek rule after Alexander the Great. 1 Maccabees (c. 100 BC) records the Maccabean revolt (167–160 BC) led by Judas Maccabeus against Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who desecrated the Temple. 2 Maccabees (c. 124 BC) retells the events with theological emphasis on God’s sovereignty, martyrdom, and resurrection hope. 3 Maccabees (c. 99-1 BC) describes Jewish trials in Egypt under Ptolemaic oppression. 4 Maccabees (1st century AD) is a philosophical reflection on reason, law, and faith, using the martyrdoms as examples of devotion to God’s Law. These writings connect to the Hebrew Scriptures’ theme of covenant fidelity in exile and persecution. Prophetically, they anticipate Jesus as the greater deliverer who conquers not by armed revolt but by the sacrifical laying down of his life. Their focus on martyrdom and resurrection shaped Jewish hope and provided cultural background for New Testament themes like the Pharisaic belief in the resurrection (Hebrews 11) and faithful endurance.
1-4 ESDRAS
The Esdras books in the Septuagint bridge the exile and restoration of Israel, focusing on God’s faithfulness, the rebuilding of Jerusalem, and covenant renewal. These works prepare readers for the coming of the Messiah by emphasizing repentance, worship, and hope. The New Testament reflects these themes as Jesus becomes the Messiah, the true Temple and source of restoration.
1 Esdras (Esdras A)
1 Esdras (c.299-200 BC) was composed in Greek and recounts events from 2 Chronicles 35–36, Ezra, and Nehemiah, covering the late 7th to 5th centuries BC. Its unique story of the three young guards debating what is strongest — wine, the king, women, or truth — celebrates truth as God’s ultimate standard. This work highlights God’s providence, the restoration of worship, and the faithfulness of leaders who seek Torah obedience, pointing ahead to Jesus as the embodiment of truth.
2 Esdras (Esdras B – Ezra–Nehemiah)
2 Esdras (c. 400 BC) preserves the combined Hebrew text of Ezra–Nehemiah, recounting events from 538–430 BC. It covers the return from Babylonian exile, Temple rebuilding under Zerubbabel, Ezra’s Torah reforms, and Nehemiah’s rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls. Its themes of restoration, covenant renewal, and holiness anticipate Jesus, who fulfills God’s promises by becoming the ultimate dwelling place of God and the restorer of true worship.
3 Esdras
3 Esdras (Latin tradition - c. 100-50 BC), closely parallels 1 Esdras, preserving much of the same material for Jewish communities using Greek Scriptures. It reflects continued interest in God’s restoration promises and reinforces the call to faithfulness.
4 Esdras (sometimes called 2 Esdras in English)
4 Esdras (c. 90–100 AD), written after the destruction of the Second Temple, presents Ezra receiving apocalyptic visions wrestling with God’s justice and the fate of Israel. Themes of resurrection, judgment, and new creation appear, offering hope of God’s ultimate intervention. Its imagery influenced early Christian eschatology, shaping how they read and interpretated the New Testament and its depiction the return of Christ and final restoration.
Canon
1 & 2 Esdras (Ezra–Nehemiah) are canonical in the Septuagint and accepted in Eastern Orthodoxy. 3 & 4 Esdras are deuterocanonical or apocryphal in most traditions but were highly influential and widely read in early Christianity.
1 Esdras (Esdras A)
1 Esdras (c.299-200 BC) was composed in Greek and recounts events from 2 Chronicles 35–36, Ezra, and Nehemiah, covering the late 7th to 5th centuries BC. Its unique story of the three young guards debating what is strongest — wine, the king, women, or truth — celebrates truth as God’s ultimate standard. This work highlights God’s providence, the restoration of worship, and the faithfulness of leaders who seek Torah obedience, pointing ahead to Jesus as the embodiment of truth.
2 Esdras (Esdras B – Ezra–Nehemiah)
2 Esdras (c. 400 BC) preserves the combined Hebrew text of Ezra–Nehemiah, recounting events from 538–430 BC. It covers the return from Babylonian exile, Temple rebuilding under Zerubbabel, Ezra’s Torah reforms, and Nehemiah’s rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls. Its themes of restoration, covenant renewal, and holiness anticipate Jesus, who fulfills God’s promises by becoming the ultimate dwelling place of God and the restorer of true worship.
3 Esdras
3 Esdras (Latin tradition - c. 100-50 BC), closely parallels 1 Esdras, preserving much of the same material for Jewish communities using Greek Scriptures. It reflects continued interest in God’s restoration promises and reinforces the call to faithfulness.
4 Esdras (sometimes called 2 Esdras in English)
4 Esdras (c. 90–100 AD), written after the destruction of the Second Temple, presents Ezra receiving apocalyptic visions wrestling with God’s justice and the fate of Israel. Themes of resurrection, judgment, and new creation appear, offering hope of God’s ultimate intervention. Its imagery influenced early Christian eschatology, shaping how they read and interpretated the New Testament and its depiction the return of Christ and final restoration.
Canon
1 & 2 Esdras (Ezra–Nehemiah) are canonical in the Septuagint and accepted in Eastern Orthodoxy. 3 & 4 Esdras are deuterocanonical or apocryphal in most traditions but were highly influential and widely read in early Christianity.
